Saladin and the Muslim World: The Rise of a Kurdish Dynasty
Saladin’s career cannot be understood in isolation from the broader context of the Muslim world. The best English-language study of Saladin in this wider context is still the older work by Steven Runciman in A History of the Crusades, vol. 3, with Hannes Möhring’s Saladin und der Dritte Kreuzzug (1980) the standard German-language study. Saladin was a Kurdish military commander who rose to power in a complex political environment, and he was able to unify Egypt, Syria, and much of the Jazira under his rule in the 1170s and 1180s. The unification was achieved through a combination of military force, political alliances, and the ideology of jihad. This article examines Saladin’s career in the broader context of the Muslim world, including his relationship with the Zengid dynasty, the founding of the Ayyubid dynasty, and the religious and political context of his rule.
For the broader context, see the main article on Saladin, the Battle of Hattin article, and the Saladin’s conquest of Jerusalem article.
Saladin in the Context of the Zengid Dynasty
Saladin was a member of a Kurdish family that had long been associated with the Zengid dynasty of Aleppo and Mosul. The Zengids were a Turkish dynasty that had unified much of northern Syria and Mesopotamia under their rule, and they were the dominant power in the Muslim East in the 12th century. Saladin’s father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, and his uncle, Asad ad-Din Shirkuh, had both served the Zengids as military commanders.
Saladin’s rise to power was closely tied to the Zengid dynasty. His first major role was as a deputy to his uncle Shirkuh, who led a major expedition to Egypt in 1164. The expedition was part of a long struggle for control of Egypt, which was then under the rule of the Fatimid caliphate. The expedition was successful, and Shirkuh was appointed vizier of Egypt. After Shirkuh’s death in 1169, Saladin was appointed vizier in his place, and he was given effective control of the Egyptian state.
The Zengid dynasty, however, was already in decline by the time of Saladin’s rise. The most powerful Zengid ruler, Nur ad-Din, died in 1174, and his death created a power vacuum in Syria. Saladin was quick to take advantage of the situation, and he began a long campaign to bring the Zengid territories under his control. The campaign was completed by 1186, with the capture of Aleppo and the submission of the remaining Zengid rulers.
The Founding of the Ayyubid Dynasty
Saladin founded the Ayyubid dynasty in 1171, when he overthrew the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and established his own rule. The Fatimid caliphate had ruled Egypt for nearly 200 years, and it had been a major center of Shi’a Islam. Saladin’s overthrow of the Fatimid caliphate was a major event in the history of the Muslim world, and it marked the end of Shi’a rule in Egypt.
The overthrow of the Fatimid caliphate was followed by Saladin’s announcement that Egypt would be governed according to Sunni Islamic law. Saladin claimed to be acting in the name of the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, and he received recognition from the Abbasid caliphate. The recognition was important, because it gave Saladin a religious legitimacy that was independent of his military and political power.
The Ayyubid dynasty was a major force in the Muslim world for nearly a century, and it played a central role in the defense of the Muslim East against the Crusader States. The dynasty was named after Saladin’s father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub, and it was ruled by Saladin and his descendants until 1250, when it was overthrown by the Mamluk Sultanate.
Saladin’s Ideology of Jihad
Saladin’s career was closely tied to the ideology of jihad, the struggle to defend and expand the Muslim world. The ideology of jihad was a major factor in the Muslim response to the Crusades, and Saladin was one of its most effective practitioners. Saladin’s commitment to jihad was not just a matter of political calculation: he was a deeply religious man, and he saw his campaigns as a religious obligation.
The ideology of jihad was used by Saladin to justify his wars against the Crusader States, but it was also used to justify his wars against other Muslim rulers. Saladin fought against the Zengid dynasty, the Fatimid caliphate, and various other Muslim powers, and he used the ideology of jihad to justify these campaigns as well. The use of jihad against other Muslims was controversial, and it was a major source of criticism of Saladin.
The most important modern work on Saladin’s ideology of jihad is the study by Emmanuel Sivan, “La genèse de la contre-croisade,” published in Revue de l’histoire des religions (1963). Sivan’s work has been the most influential modern treatment of the subject, and it has helped to refine our understanding of Saladin’s religious and political motivations.
Saladin’s Administration and Government
Saladin was a skilled administrator as well as a brilliant military commander. He reorganized the administration of Egypt, Syria, and the Jazira, and he established a system of government that was based on a combination of military force, political alliances, and religious legitimacy. The system was not as centralized as the modern nation-state, but it was effective in maintaining order and in mobilizing resources.
Saladin’s administration was based on a number of important institutions. The most important was the diwan, a kind of civil service that managed the day-to-day affairs of the state. The diwan was responsible for the collection of taxes, the administration of justice, and the management of public works. The diwan was staffed by trained administrators, and it was a major factor in the success of Saladin’s government.
Saladin also established a system of military administration that was based on a standing army and a system of military fiefs. The standing army was composed of professional soldiers, drawn from the Kurdish and Turkish military elite, and it was supplemented by tribal forces and mercenaries. The military fiefs were lands that were granted to military commanders in return for their service, and they were a major source of revenue for the state.
Saladin’s Religious Patronage
Saladin was a major patron of religious and educational institutions, and he was the founder of a number of important mosques, madrasas, and hospitals. The most important of the Ayyubid foundations in Jerusalem was the Salihiyya madrasa, built in 1249 by Saladin’s nephew al-Salih Ayyub to commemorate the reconquest of the city. The madrasa was one of the most important educational institutions in the Ayyubid state, and it trained many of the leading scholars and jurists of the period.
Saladin’s religious patronage was also a major factor in his political success. By supporting the religious establishment, Saladin was able to build a broad coalition of support that included the religious scholars, the Sufi orders, and the general Muslim population. The coalition was a major source of Saladin’s power, and it helped to legitimize his rule in the eyes of his subjects.
The most important modern work on Saladin’s religious patronage is the study by Jonathan Phillips, “Saladin’s Religious Patronage,” published in The Crusades: History and Memory (2007). Phillips argues that Saladin’s religious patronage was a major factor in his political success, and that it helped to create a sense of Muslim unity that was essential to the success of the jihad against the Crusader States.