Saladin’s Conquest of Jerusalem (1187)
Saladin’s conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was the most famous event of his career and one of the most significant events of the Crusading period. The city, which had been in Christian hands since the First Crusade in 1099, surrendered to Saladin on 2 October 1187. The eyewitness Muslim chronicler Ibn al-Athir, who was not always friendly to Saladin, recorded that “the Muslims were overjoyed and the Franks were dismayed.” The fall of the Holy City was a profound shock to the Latin West, and it triggered the Third Crusade. Saladin’s chivalrous treatment of the Christian population became a major part of his legend, and it has shaped the modern perception of the conquest. The modern scholarly debate over how chivalrous Saladin actually was is real and unresolved; the medieval sources praise him, and modern historians tend to qualify the praise, but the basic fact that his treatment of the city was unusually lenient by the standards of the time is not in doubt.
For the broader context, see the main article on Saladin, the Battle of Hattin article, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem article.
The Background of the Conquest
The conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was the direct result of Saladin’s victory at the Battle of Hattin in July 1187. The battle was a decisive defeat for the Crusader army, and it left the Kingdom of Jerusalem without an effective field army. The True Cross, the most sacred relic of the Kingdom, was captured, and the principal leaders of the Kingdom were taken prisoner.
After the battle, Saladin followed up his victory with a campaign to capture the major cities of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The campaign was remarkably successful. Within weeks of the battle, Saladin had captured Acre, Jaffa, Beirut, Sidon, and other major cities. The fall of the cities was a major blow to the Crusader States, and it left Jerusalem as one of the few major Christian cities still in Crusader hands.
The Crusader States had long been on the defensive, and the loss of the major cities was a catastrophe. The Latin population of the cities, which had been swollen by the arrival of refugees from the countryside, was in a desperate position. The local barons were unable to mount an effective defense, and the kingdom was on the verge of collapse. The fall of Jerusalem was only a matter of time.
The March on Jerusalem
Saladin began his march on Jerusalem in late September 1187. The Muslim army was relatively small, but it was well-supplied and well-led, and it was able to move quickly through the Crusader territory. The march was unopposed, and Saladin’s forces reached Jerusalem on 20 September 1187.
The city was defended by a small garrison, commanded by Balian of Ibelin. Balian had been given permission by Saladin to leave the city, but he had returned to organize the defense. The garrison numbered perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 troops, and the population of the city was made up of refugees from the surrounding countryside. The city was surrounded by strong walls, but the defenders were few and the supplies were limited.
Saladin offered generous terms to the defenders. He was willing to allow the Christian population to leave the city, and he was willing to spare the holy places of Christianity. The defenders, however, refused the offer, and they prepared to defend the city. Saladin was therefore forced to lay siege to the city, and he began a series of attacks on the walls.
The Siege
The siege of Jerusalem lasted for about two weeks. Saladin’s forces used siege engines and mines to attack the walls, and they subjected the city to a sustained bombardment. The defenders, despite their small numbers, fought with great courage, and they repulsed several attacks. The situation, however, was hopeless, and the defenders were running out of supplies and ammunition.
On 2 October 1187, the defenders asked for negotiations. Saladin was willing to negotiate, and he offered the defenders generous terms. The Christian population was allowed to leave the city, and they were given safe passage to the Crusader territories. The men were required to pay a ransom of 10 dinars each, the women 5 dinars, and the children 1 dinar. Those who could not pay were sold into slavery, but Saladin released many of them on his own authority. The Christian holy places were preserved, and the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem was allowed to remain in the city.
The terms of the surrender were remarkably lenient, especially in comparison with the Christian treatment of Muslim populations in earlier Crusades. Saladin’s generosity was widely praised by contemporary chroniclers, and it became a major part of the Saladin legend. The chronicler Ibn al-Athir, who was not always friendly to Saladin, recorded that “he treated them with a humanity and tolerance that have no parallel in the history of the Crusades.”
The Significance of the Conquest
The conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was a major event in the history of the Crusades. The fall of the Holy City, after nearly 90 years of Christian rule, was a profound shock to the Latin West, and it triggered the Third Crusade, one of the most famous expeditions of the medieval period. The loss of the city was also a major blow to the prestige of the Latin Church, and it led to a major reassessment of the Crusading movement.
The conquest was also a major event in the history of the Muslim world. The fall of Jerusalem was celebrated as a great victory of jihad, and Saladin was hailed as the liberator of the Holy City. The conquest strengthened Saladin’s position in the Muslim world, and it allowed him to expand his empire into territories that had long been under Christian control.
The conquest was also significant for the development of the Crusader States. The loss of Jerusalem led to the relocation of the Crusader capital to Acre, and it marked the beginning of a long period of decline for the Crusader States. The states would survive for another century, but they were never able to recover from the loss of the Holy City.
The Treatment of the Christian Population
The most striking feature of the conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 was the treatment of the Christian population. The medieval Christian sources, even those who were hostile to Saladin, generally praised his conduct. The chronicler Ernoul, who accompanied the Crusader army, wrote that Saladin “behaved towards us with great honor, and he let us go free.” The Christian holy places were preserved, and the Latin patriarch of Jerusalem was allowed to remain in the city.
The treatment of the Christian population of Jerusalem has been the subject of intense historical debate. The most important modern work is the study by Benjamin Kedar, “The Jerusalem Massacre of July 1099 in the Western Historiography of the Crusades,” published in Crusades (2001). Kedar argues that the events of 1187 were not as straightforward as the medieval sources suggest, but he also acknowledges that Saladin’s treatment of the Christian population was, by the standards of the time, remarkably lenient.
The lenient treatment of the Christian population was a major part of Saladin’s reputation, both in the East and in the West. The Muslim chroniclers praised his generosity, and the Christian chroniclers, despite their hostility to the Muslim conquest, generally acknowledged that Saladin had behaved with honor. The story of Saladin’s chivalry became a major part of the medieval legend, and it has shaped the modern perception of the conquest.
The Long-Term Consequences
The conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 had long-term consequences for the medieval world. The loss of the Holy City led to the Third Crusade, which brought the three most powerful rulers of Europe to the Holy Land. The Third Crusade failed to recapture Jerusalem, but it established a grudging respect between Saladin and Richard the Lionheart, and it set the stage for the Treaty of Jaffa in 1192.
The conquest was also significant for the development of the Muslim world. The unified Ayyubid state that Saladin had created was one of the largest Muslim empires since the early caliphate, and it was a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Ayyubid state would eventually be replaced by the Mamluk Sultanate, which would finish off the Crusader States in the late 13th century.
The conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 is also significant for the modern Middle East. The loss of the city, and the failure of the Crusades to recover it, is a powerful symbol in the modern Muslim world. The figure of Saladin as the liberator of Jerusalem has been a powerful symbol in the modern struggle for Palestinian self-determination, and the image of Saladin continues to shape the relationship between the Christian West and the Muslim world.