The Siege of Jerusalem (1099): The Climax of the First Crusade
The Siege of Jerusalem in 1099 was the climax of the First Crusade and the central event of the entire Crusading movement. After a march of more than two years from Europe, an army of perhaps 12,000 to 15,000 effective combatants arrived before the walls of the Holy City in early June 1099. The chronicler Raymond of Aguilers, an eyewitness, recorded that when the army first saw the city from the Mount of Olives, the men wept and sang hymns. Five weeks later, on 15 July 1099, the Crusaders stormed the walls and took the city. The capture of Jerusalem, after centuries of Muslim rule, sent shock waves across the medieval world. It led directly to the founding of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader States.
This article traces the events of the siege, the assault, and the controversial aftermath. For the broader campaign, see the main article on the First Crusade and the Battle of Antioch, the engagement that opened the road to Jerusalem.
The City of Jerusalem
By 1099, Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for 460 years. The city had been captured by the Arab armies of the Caliph Umar in 638, and it had changed hands several times in the centuries that followed, most recently being taken by the Seljuk Turks in 1076 and then by the Fatimids of Egypt in 1098. The city’s population was a mixture of Muslim Arabs, Greek Orthodox Christians, Armenian Christians, and a small Latin Christian community. The Holy Sepulchre, the Church of the Resurrection, was the most sacred site in Christendom, and the city was also home to the Temple Mount, sacred to Jews and Muslims.
The fortifications of Jerusalem had been substantially rebuilt by the Fatimids in the 11th century. The walls of the Old City, while not as massive as those of Antioch, were formidable. The garrison in 1099 was commanded by Iftikhar ad-Dawla, a Fatimid eunuch. He had perhaps 1,000 to 2,000 regular troops and a similar number of local militia.
The March from Antioch
After the Battle of Antioch in June 1098, the Crusaders paused for several months. The army had been severely weakened by the long siege, and the leaders needed time to gather supplies and to resolve their political differences. Bohemond of Taranto, who had claimed Antioch, stayed behind to consolidate his new principality. The bulk of the army, perhaps 12,000 to 15,000 effective combatants, set out in late 1098 and early 1099.
The march from Antioch to Jerusalem took the better part of a year. The army followed the Levantine coast, capturing the ports of Latakia, Tortosa, and Gibelet. They moved inland through Tripoli, where they negotiated with the local Muslim ruler, and reached the border of the Fatimid Caliphate in the spring of 1099. The Crusaders were now in unfamiliar territory. The coastal cities of the Fatimid Caliphate were heavily fortified, and the local population was hostile. The Crusaders’ supply situation was precarious.
The army arrived before Jerusalem in early June 1099. The condition of the Crusaders was mixed. They were exhausted and understrength, but they were also deeply motivated. They had been on the road for more than two years, and they had captured Antioch. They were now, for the first time, in sight of their ultimate objective.
The Siege
The Crusaders established a camp on the Mount of Olives, east of the city, and began to survey the defenses. The walls of Jerusalem were about 4 kilometers in circumference, and they were studded with towers. The gates were heavily defended. The Crusaders had no experience in besieging such a major city, and they lacked siege engineers. They had, however, Genoese and Pisano sailors in their force, and these men knew how to build siege engines.
The first attempt to take the city failed. The Crusaders tried to assault the walls directly, but they were repulsed with heavy losses. The army then settled down to a proper siege. They cut timber from the surrounding hills, built three large siege towers, and began to construct mantlets and other siege equipment. The work was difficult, as the Crusaders were under constant harassment from the garrison.
The situation was complicated by the arrival of a Fatimid relief force from Egypt. The Fatimids had sent a fleet up the coast, and they had brought with them a substantial army under the vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah. The relief force arrived in late June 1099, but it was held off by the Crusader control of the coast. After a few inconclusive engagements, the vizier withdrew. The Crusaders were now free to concentrate on the city.
The Assault of 15 July 1099
The decisive assault came on 15 July 1099. The Crusaders had built three siege towers, and on the night of 14 July they moved them into position. The assault was led by the Norman contingent under Robert of Normandy and the Provençal contingent under Raymond of Saint-Giles. The Muslim garrison had tried to undermine the Crusader positions, and there had been several fierce night engagements. By the morning of 15 July, the Crusaders were ready.
The assault was hard-fought. The Norman contingent under Robert of Normandy led the way, supported by the Flemish and English troops. The Provençal contingent under Raymond of Saint-Giles attacked from the south. The Genoese and Pisano sailors, with their experience of amphibious operations, provided crucial support. After a day of fierce fighting, the Crusaders broke into the city.
The fall of the city was followed by a massacre. The Crusaders, determined to avenge the Muslim atrocities that had been committed during the earlier failed sallies, killed many of the Muslim and Jewish inhabitants. The chronicler Raymond of Aguilers, who witnessed the events, described the Crusaders wading in blood up to their ankles. The accounts of the massacre are graphic and, in some cases, exaggerated, but the underlying facts are not in doubt.
The Aftermath of the Capture
The capture of Jerusalem sent shock waves across the medieval world. In Europe, it was celebrated as a great triumph. The news reached the West in the autumn of 1099, and the response was ecstatic. The pope, Urban II, had died on 29 July 1099, two weeks after the city’s fall, but his successor, Paschal II, recognized the achievement.
In the Muslim world, the capture of Jerusalem was a profound trauma. The fall of the city would inspire a century of resistance, culminating in the Battle of Hattin and the reconquest of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1187. The events of 1099, and especially the massacre that followed, would be remembered for centuries.
The capture of Jerusalem led directly to the founding of the Crusader States. Godfrey of Bouillon, who had played a leading role in the march from Antioch, was chosen as the first ruler of the new Kingdom. He refused the title of king, calling himself the Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri, Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. The title is interesting: it reflects his reluctance to claim a crown where Christ had worn one. After his death in 1100, his brother Baldwin became the first crowned king.
The Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Tripoli, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Edessa, taken together, formed the Latin East. Their history is examined in detail in the Kingdom of Jerusalem pillar article. The Knights Templar, founded in 1119 to protect pilgrims on the roads of the Kingdom, would go on to become one of the most famous military religious orders in history.