Frederick Barbarossa’s Crusade: The German Army in the Third Crusade
The Third Crusade was the largest and most prestigious expedition of the medieval period, in large part because it brought together the three most powerful rulers of Europe. Of these, the most formidable was the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa (1122-1190), the ruler of Germany, Italy, and Burgundy, and one of the most powerful men in Christendom. The chronicler Ansbert, our principal source for the German army, recorded the emperor as a great soldier and a charismatic leader. Frederick’s decision to take the cross and lead a major German army to the Holy Land was a turning point in the history of the Third Crusade. The emperor’s death, by drowning in the Saleph River in Cilicia on 10 June 1190, was a severe blow, and the German army would never fully recover from the loss of its leader.
For the broader story, see the main article on the Third Crusade, Richard the Lionheart, and the Saladin pillar article.
Who Was Frederick Barbarossa?
Frederick I, known to history as Barbarossa (“Red Beard”) because of his distinctive red beard, was born around 1122 and became King of Germany in 1152. He was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Adrian IV in 1155, and he reigned until his death in 1190. He was one of the most powerful rulers of the medieval period, and his reign was marked by constant conflict with the papacy, the Italian city-states, and the German princes.
Frederick was a great soldier and a charismatic leader. He participated in numerous campaigns in Germany and Italy, and he earned a reputation for personal bravery and military skill. He was also a deeply religious man, and he took seriously his responsibilities as a Christian ruler. His decision to go on Crusade in 1188, at the age of 66, was therefore an important moment both for the emperor personally and for the entire expedition.
The Decision to Take the Cross
The fall of Jerusalem to Saladin in October 1187 was a profound shock to the Latin West, and the response was immediate. Pope Gregory VIII issued the bull Audita tremendi on 29 October 1187, calling on the rulers of Europe to march to the defense of the Holy Land. The emperor was at the Diet of Mainz in March 1188, when the papal call reached him. He responded with characteristic decisiveness: he took the cross, and he committed himself to leading a major German army to the Holy Land.
The decision was a major event. The emperor was the most powerful ruler in Europe, and his participation gave the Third Crusade an unprecedented prestige. The German contingent would be the largest single army of the expedition, and the emperor’s leadership was expected to be a decisive factor.
The German Army
The German army that Frederick assembled was one of the most formidable forces of the medieval period. It numbered perhaps 20,000 to 30,000 effective combatants, plus a substantial non-combatant train. The army included knights from all the German principalities, as well as substantial numbers of Italian, Bohemian, and other troops. The army was also well-supplied, having been assembled with the resources of the empire behind it.
The German army set out in May 1189, marching through Hungary, the Balkans, and Anatolia. The march was a remarkable feat of military organization, and it demonstrated the strength of imperial power. The army made its way through the Byzantine Empire, where it had to negotiate passage with Emperor Isaac II Angelos. The Byzantines were suspicious of the German army, and there were several incidents, but the army made its way through the empire without major conflict.
The Crossing of Anatolia
The march through Anatolia was the most dangerous part of the expedition. The First Crusade had suffered severely in Anatolia, and the Second Crusade had been a complete disaster there. The German army was determined to avoid the fate of its predecessors, and it made good progress through the region. The army captured the Turkish city of Iconium (modern Konya) on 18 May 1190, a major victory that opened the way south.
The German army’s progress through Anatolia was aided by the discipline and the cohesion of its troops. Frederick was a brilliant commander, and he had organized the army with great care. The army was well-supplied, well-trained, and well-led, and it was able to defeat the Seljuk Turkish forces in several engagements.
The Death of the Emperor
On 10 June 1190, while the German army was marching through Cilicia in southern Anatolia, the emperor died. The exact circumstances of his death are not entirely clear. According to the most common account, the emperor was crossing the Saleph River (modern Göksu) on horseback when he fell from his horse and was swept away by the current. Other accounts suggest that the emperor was attempting to lead his troops across the river when he fell. The chronicler Ansbert recorded the event in detail, and the German chronicler of the Crusade, the Historia de expeditione Friderici imperatoris, is one of the most important sources for the expedition.
The death of the emperor was a major blow. The German army, deprived of its leader, was demoralized. The army’s discipline broke down, and many soldiers sold their arms and equipment. The remains of the army made their way to Antioch, where the local ruler, Bohemond III, tried to take advantage of the situation. The German army eventually made its way to Acre, where it participated in the siege, but it was a shadow of the force that had set out from Germany.
The German Army at Acre
The remnants of the German army arrived at the Siege of Acre in late 1190. The German contingent, under the command of Frederick’s son, Frederick of Swabia, played an important role in the siege. The German troops were well-trained and well-equipped, and they made a significant contribution to the eventual capture of the city on 12 July 1191.
The presence of the German army at Acre was also politically significant. The death of the emperor had created a power vacuum in the Holy Roman Empire, and the German contingent at Acre was a reminder of imperial prestige. The English king, Richard the Lionheart, who arrived at Acre in 1191, treated the German contingent with respect, and the German army participated in the subsequent march down the coast.
The Legacy of Frederick’s Crusade
The death of Frederick Barbarossa was one of the most significant events of the Third Crusade. The emperor had been the most powerful ruler in Europe, and his participation had given the expedition an unprecedented prestige. His death removed a major figure from the Crusade, and it also created a power vacuum in the Holy Roman Empire that would have long-term consequences for European politics.
The emperor’s death also became a powerful legend. The story of the emperor who would return, sleeping in the Kyffhäuser mountain in Thuringia, became one of the most popular medieval German legends. The legend, popularized in the 13th century, was probably inspired by the emperor’s death in 1190 and by the political chaos that followed. The legend of Barbarossa’s return would later be taken up by German nationalists in the 19th century, and it remains a powerful image in modern German culture.
The modern historian John Gillingham has argued that Frederick’s death was a major turning point in the history of the Crusades. The emperor’s army had been the best-organized and most disciplined of the expedition, and its loss was a severe handicap. The Third Crusade would go on, but it would never achieve its central objective, the recapture of Jerusalem.